Research Topics in Optometry

Postgraduate research topics Department of Optometry and Vision Science Postgraduate research topics The following is a list of research topics offered at the doctorate (PhD), masters and honours level.  » Honours  » Masters  » PhD Honours Research Topics| Affiliation – Faculty and Dept| Supervisor/s details| Comparison of animal models of age related nuclear cataract| Optometry and Vision Science| Professor Paul Donaldson p. [email  protected] ac. nz| Mapping antioxidant transporter expression in the front of the eye| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr Julie Lim j. [email  protected] ac. nz| Electron microscopy of protein trafficking in the lens| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr Angus Grey ac. [email  protected] ac. nz| Modelling of lens function  | Optometry and Vision Science| Dr Ehsan Vaghefi e. [email  protected] ac. nz| Exploring neural plasticity in the human visual cortex| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr. Ben Thompson b. [email  protected] ac. nz| Development of aids for colour deficient optometrists| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr. Misha Vorobyev m. [email  protected] ac. nz| Botox: as a tool for eye therapy? | Optometry and Vision Science| Dr Monica Acosta:m. [email  protected] ac. nz| Top Masters Research Topics| Affiliation – Faculty and Dept| Supervisor/s details| Developing functiuonal assays to study membrane protein function in the core of the lens| Optometry and Vision Science| Professor Paul Donaldson p. [email  protected] ac. nz| Chromatic and achromatic vision in reef fish| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr. Misha Vorobyev m. [email  protected] ac. nz| Colour preference in the honeybee| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr. Misha Vorobyev m. [email  protected] ac. nz| Clinical tests for colour vision defects| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. z| Defocus and visual function| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Visual characteristics of NZ population groups| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Assessment of refractive error in low vision| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Clinical research topics in optometry| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| How does a cell die? Analysis of photoreceptor cells| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science| Dr Monica Acosta:m. [email  protected] ac. nz| Top PhD Research Topics| Affiliation – Faculty and Dept| Supervisor/s details| Functional characterization of glucose transporters in the lens| Optometry and Vision Science| Professor Paul Donaldson p. [email  protected] ac. nz| Visualization of cell signaling pathways in the ocular lens| Optometry and Vision Science| Professor Paul Donaldson p. [email  protected] ac. nz| Functional characterization of the cystine/glutamate exchanger in the lens: a potential therapy to delay age related nuclear cataract? | Optometry and Vision Science| Dr. Julie Lim j. [email  protected] c. nz| Functional mapping of purinergic signalling pathways in the lens|   Optometry and Vision Science| Professor Paul Donaldson p. [email  protected] ac. nz| Studying membrane protein function in the core of the lens| Optometry and Vision Science| Professor Paul Donaldson p. [email  protected] ac. nz| Antioxidant strategies to prevent age related nuclear cataract| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr Julie Lim j. [email  protected] ac. nz| Investigation of physiological mechanisms that regulate normal eye growth| Optometry & Vision Science| Dr John Phillips j. [email  protected] ac. nz| Investigation of methods for Inhibition of myopia progression in children. | Optometry & Vision Science| Dr John Phillips j. [email  protected] ac. nz| Harnessing neural plasticity for visual rehabilitation| Optometry & Vision Science| Dr. Ben Thompson b. [email  protected] ac. nz| Measuring the human visual cortex response to visual loss with fMRI| Optometry and Vision Science| Dr. Ben Thompson b. [email  protected] ac. nz| The relationship between native New Zealand flowers and vision of native pollinators  |   |   | Colour deficeincy and colour judgement|   | Dr Misha Vorobyev m. [email  protected] ac. z| Visual characteristics of NZ population groups| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Defocus and visual function| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Clinical tests for colour vision defects. | FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [ema il  protected] ac. nz| Assessment of refractive error in low vision| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Research topics in clinical optometry| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Assoc Prof Rob Jacobs r. [email  protected] ac. nz| Vesicular transport in eye disesases| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Dr. Monica Acostam. [email  protected] ac. nz| Neurochemistry of an animal model of retinal degeneration| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Dr. Monica Acostam. [email  protected] ac. nz | Modelling oxygen / CO2 circulation of the retinal cells| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Dr. Ehsan Vaghefi  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  e. [email  protected] ac. nz| Modelling the electrical stimulation of the retina, using hexagonal electrodes| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Dr. Ehsan Vaghefi e. [email  protected] ac. nz| Creating a full 3D anatomically correct model of the ocular lens| FoS (Optometry and Vision Science)| Professor Paul Donaldsonp. [email  protected] ac. nzDr. Ehsan Vaghefie. [email  protected] ac. nz| Top * FOR * ABOUT * Our department * Our research * Research groups * Publications * Postgraduate research topics * Our courses * Our staff * Careers and opportunities * News and events Apply now! 2012 Handbook Postgraduate Research University of Auckland Clinics SharePrintEmail Copyright  © The University of Auckland A to Z Directory  |  Site map  |  Accessibility  |  Copyright  |  Privacy  |  Disclaimer  |  Feedback on this page | |

Evolution of Hard Disk Essay

Hard disk is a storage device that resides inside a computer to read and write the data. Before the arrival of hard disk drive; paper was used as storage device; however the paper worked in a different way. Programs and data would be recorded using holes punched into paper where a special reader with a beam of light would scan the cards or tape. The paper-based computers were used by US Navy to store data during 1940s and 1950s. During 1950s, work began in IBM on experimental hard disks. The researchers at IBM were working on various technologies to develop a disk drive that could not only store data easily, but also feasible commercially in consumer mass market. IBM developed the first hard disks in 1950s, but this disk technology was unlike today’s disk. It rotated on cylindrical drum; over which the magnetic patterns were stored. The early hard disk had heads of hard disk in contact with surface of disk; which was done to allow the low sensitivity to read the magnetic fields and pick up the data bits. The early disk drive was huge in size mainly composed of huge vacuum tube. Its random access method occupied the space equal to two refrigerators with a weight of almost one ton. The disk huge magnetic drums were complex and hard to work with; and its manufacturing technique was also very cumbersome. For example, it was not possible to get the disk surface as smooth as possible to allow reading the data at high speed. The disk head would also easily worn out after little usage and the magnetic head would stop working. It was in late 1950s that IBM engineers found a break through allowing them to create the modern day hard disk drive. The IBM engineer found the solution to the earlier problems; when they realized that with a proper design, the head of hard disk could be suspended over the disk surface to read the data beneath it. Working on this discovery in 1956, IBM first hard disk (IBM 305 RAMAC was introduced. This hard disk was able to store 5 millions characters; which was a huge amount in those days; while today’s hard disk densities are measured in billions of bits square per inch. It was in 1961 that IBM invented separate head for each data surface in their hard drive. By 1973 IBM shipped hard disk 3model 340 that were the first sealed hard disk drive continues till today. This technology is used by almost all the hard disk manufacturers around the world. Further development took place in 1980s; when Seagate introduced the first hard disk for PC or microcomputers named as ST506. Even though it was much more smaller in size than the disks produced in that time; compared to modern hard disks, it was twice the size. During the 1980s Philips also manufactured the optical laser drive. By 1981 Sony also started to ship floppy drive. In 1983 Rodime made the first 3. 5-inch floppy drive; and by 1985 first CD-ROM encyclopedia came into being. The modern 3 1/ 2 IDE drive arrived in the market in 1985. The technology used in IDE drive was not much different from the earlier disk drive technology; but ultimately it was added into the expansion board. The hard card included the drive that finally evolved into IDE hard disk drive, where the controller was finally merged into the printed circuit. During 1980s the arrival of DOS made easy the selling of hard disk; as DOS made computing easy for normal users. However there was problem in DOS version 3. 31 and above. The new DOS 4. 0 did not support hard disk larger than 32 MB. The reason for this problem was the number of sectors that could not exceed 16-bit. This need pushed the programmers to come up with new software. The solution was provided by Ontrack Disk Manager’ that allowed partition in hard disks. In 1986, the first 3-? hard disks that had voice coil actuator were introduced. By 1997 Seagate made big leap by introducing first 7200-RPM ATA hard disk drive for PC followed by 15000-RPM hard disk drive that allowed data reading and writing data much faster. The amazing thing about hard disk is that they haven’t changed that much compared to other PC related components in the past 40 years. The figure below shows the changes taken place throughout the decades in hard disk technology. Even today’s hard disk basic design has remained the same, except the size, capacity and storage. Thus it can be said that 1980s and 1990s allowed the spread of hard disks due to the arrival of PC; which were available to the modern consumers. As the hard disk technology developed so does it capacity and size. The earliest computers normally had 20 MB drive. By 2007 desktop computers hard disks drives have reached 100 to 500 GB.

How to Convert a Traditional Organization to a Learning Organization

Communication is the sharing of information for a variety of purposes including informing, persuading, motivating orinfluencing. There are two general ways of delivering the information: formal and informal communication channels. Formal Communication in the Workplace Formal communication is organized and managed information that is shared with relevant individuals in order to secure coordinated action throughout the organization. Formal communication channels are based on an individual’s role in the organization and distributed in an organized way according to the established chain in organizational charts.Typically, formal communication flows â€Å"downward† from executives to directors to managers to staff regarding company direction and instruction and â€Å"upward† from staff to managers to directors to executives in the form of data and reports. The communication flowing through these channels iss   pecific to the jobs and departments. Such formal communication is well established and planned. For example, reports and data from staff are organized are generally submitted prescribed templates and according to a set schedule.Communication focused on a company’s strategy and direction, which originates from company executives, is funnelled through the organizational chart and changed in such a way to be relevant to each department and manager. What starts out as â€Å"high-level† communication on corporate strategy needs to be thought out through planning sessions so that the communication provides direction and is actionable for the individuals who implement the tasks of the strategy.The better the communication the better employees and staff will understand what is expected and required of them. advertisement Communicate Better, Lead Better Successful people are good communicators. Enhance your communciations skills with the guide to Being an Effective Communicator. Informal Communication in the Workplace On the other hand, informal communication in the workplace satisfies a variety of needs, particularly social and emotional, and are not based o n the positions individuals occupy within the organizations.As a result, the communication is not managed or planned in any organized fashion. It’s more relaxed, casual and tends to be spread by word-of-mouth quickly throughout a department or organization because it’s not restricted to approvals and an established path of distribution. Probably the most common term used for the informal communication in the workplace is â€Å"grapevine† and this communication that is sent through the organizational grapevine is often considered  gossip  or rumour.While grapevine communication can spread information quickly and can easily cross established organizational boundaries, the information it carries can be changed through the deletion or exaggeration crucial details thus causing the information inaccurate – even if it’s based on truth. The use of the organizational grapevine as an informal communication channel often results when employees feel threat ened, vulnerable, or when the organization is experiencing change and when communication from management is restricted and not forthcoming.When used with thought and planning, however, there are several advantages of grapevine communication. It can * spread information quickly throughout an organization * serve a social purpose * reduce stress and anxiety * can be used to identify problems or lack of satisfaction in the workplace While the organizational grapevine can never be eliminated, even if there are several advantages of grapevine communication, it can be reduced by removing the need for information. Managing the grapevine can be partly achieved by providing information through good, effective ommunication such as: * supplying sufficient information through the formal communication channel about the concerns that are of importance to employees and staff * present as much factual information as possible as soon as it is obtained * keep information coming on a regular basis esp ecially during times of change when the employees are stressed and wondering what’s going on. Daily communication with them will reduce the pressure of uncertainty. * open the lines of the formal communication channels to receive feedback and concerns. Respond to these as quickly as possible.If concerns are submitted from staff and no response is given by management, rumours through grapevine communication will begin to fill in the communication gap which was created by management. Formal / informal communication channels exist in every organization. Formal communication requires thought and planning prior to distribution; informal communication, however, usually succeeds on its own mostly because of the very effective grapevine. While there are several advantages of grapevine communication, managing the grapevine also requires thought and planning.Even so, it’s very difficult to formalize informal communication, therefore, the best way to cut the grapevine is to provi de accurate, respectful and timely formal communication. http://basiccollegeaccounting. com/2009/05/understand-the-difference-between-formal-and-informal-communication/ FORMAL COMMUNICATION| * Communication takes place through the formal channels of the organization structure along the lines of authority established by the management. * Such communications are generally in writing and may take any of the forms; policy; manuals: procedures and rule books; memoranda; official meetings; reports, etc.Advantages & Disadvantages  of Formal Communication:The  advantages  of formal communication are: * They help in the fixation of responsibility and * Maintaining of the authority relationship in an organization. The  disadvantages  of formal communication are: * Generally time consuming, cumbersome and * Leads to a good deal of distortion at times. | INFORMAL COMMUNICATION| * Communication arising out of al those channels of communication that fall outside the formal channels is k nown as informal communication. *Built around the social relationships of members of the organization. * Informal communication does not flow lines of authority as is the case of formal communication. * It arises due to the personal needs of the members of n organization. * At times, in informal communication, it is difficult to fix responsibility about accuracy of information. Such communication is usually oral and may be covered even by simple glance, gesture or smile or silence. | http://www. easycommunication. info/what-is-informal-communication ————————————————-WHAT IS INFORMAL COMMUNICATION? Informal communication arises out of all those channels that fall outside the formal channels and it is also known as grapevine. It is established around the societal affiliation of members of the organization. Informal communication does not follow authority lines as in the case of formal communication. Informal communication takes place due to the individual needs of the members of an organization and subsists in every organization. Normally, such communication is oral and may be expressed even by simple glance, sign or silence.Informal communication, is implicit, spontaneous multidimensional and diverse. It oftenly works in group of people, i. e. when one person has some information of interest; he passes it on to his informal group and so on. An organization can make efficient use of informal channels to fortify the formal channels of communication. It acts as a valuable purpose in expressing certain information that cannot be channeled via the official channels. It satisfies the people desires to identify what is happening in the organization and offers an opportunity to express dreads, worries and complaints.Informal communication also facilitates to ameliorate managerial decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision-making. Inspite on many advantages, informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal communication contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data. The informal channels of communication may transmit completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help an organization. In addition, it is impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of information. However, for the efficient working of any organization both formal and informal communications are required. ttp://www. typesofcommunication. org/communication/verbal-communication/formal-communication/ Formal Communication Formal communication can be considered as communication efforts that are â€Å"dressed up† to fit customary rules and ceremony For example, in a written letter, the formal communication style will demand that the layout of the piece of written communication follow a specific format that includes the date, header, salutation, body of the letter, close, signature lines and any indicators of enclosures all placed neatly upon company letterhead or personal stationery.By contrast, an informal piece of written communication can be as simple as a jotted note to a friend on a torn slip of paper Formal communications are mostly written, although they may now also include formal presentations that are on computer disk, video tape or DVDs, MP3 presentations and other similar electronic reproductions of written communications. Other forms of formal communications include newsletters, legal advisories, invitations, awards, and letters of congratulations.Non-written formal communication devices are in-person communications in the forms of departmental meetings, telephone calls, conferences and special interviews. Some publications that are devoted to a special purpose, such as a company’s annual report, are formal communications. There is a non-verbal component to formal communication as well. The style and manners of the presenter dictate the formalness of a meeting, and this can be immediately seen at the time of introduction of a speaker.Some elements of non-verbal formal communication include maintaining a certain distance from others, standing above the crowd, speaking in formal tones and using formal means of address to others, such as â€Å"Mister† or â€Å"Doctor† when calling upon others. Colloquialisms, which are freely used in  informal communication, are not present in formal communications. Proper English or another language is spoken. Formal communications will follow a chain of command in the flow of the communication, either upwards to or down from managers.The use of formal communication is more prevalent in highly technical areas where a message must be exact and specific, leaving no room for misinterpretation. The written communication is carefully thought out, and planned for a certain effect or result. It often is written in a third person non-personal voice of â€Å"he, she, it, and they† rather than †Å"I† or â€Å"you† voices. Grammar, spelling and layout are important for written communications, and for spoken communications there is an emphasis placed on the quality of the speech voice and pronunciation.Some formal communications are congratulatory, others can be advisory or informational. Legal papers follow a tightly formatted layout that is customary within the professional and widely used by others. Likewise, scientific research papers have a customary format to follow. Any written communication that is expected to adhere to particular rules can be considered to be formal communication, and the actual tone of the piece may range from friendly to threatening. It can be more demanding and imply expectations to the receiver that should create desired results. ttp://www. communication-type. com/what-is-formal-communication/ The messages which are circulating on regulated, preset channels, of an organization are creating the  formal communication. The content of the communication is related to the organization’s activity, to the work and to anything which is related to those. The  formal communication  can consist in verbal messages, nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone messages, radio messages, printed, internal notes. Even some gestures can consist in  formal communication.The messages are transmitted by the authorized ones: on official channels, these arrive to the ones who need to react, to people or machines which need to know the content of these messages. Usually, all  formal communications  are recorded and kept in the organization’s evidence. Are retained copies of these by the transmitter, by the receiver, by all of the desks from the organization which need to know and keep the information. Examples of  formal communications  are given by work commands, reports and financial evidence, reports over sells / inventory, statements referring to the company’s policies, po st descriptions, etc.The  formal communication  can sometimes take place on the horizontal, along the parallel directions of authority. The  formal communication  network from an organization along with the keeping spaces of these communications, are serving to more purposes. It defines the channel on which will be sent important messages. It will be created a transmitting plan of this information, both for the transmitter and for the receivers. It will be indicated the direction towards the persons who will react and to the persons who need to be informed about these actions, their steps and esult. It offers an information storage space which will be necessary on planning the operations and control. It is created an ordered system for the superiors and subordinates, in order to keep each other informed constantly. The  formal communication  network is formed out of formal channels, created by setting a formal system of responsibilities according to the hierarchical stru cture of the organization. The perfect network is the one which contains communication channel from bottom up, downwards and horizontally.Often the direction of horizontal communication is missing or it is inefficient and in this way the accuracy of the information decreases. The situation is appearing because of the lack of permanent circulation of the information between departments, although this is vital for the organization in conditions of existent competition, or the lack of specialists in organizational communication. The downwards communications, from top to bottom, is performed by the manager to the subordinates. There are transmitted provisions and instructions, are identified the employees responsibilities.In an efficient organization, this type of communication has its purpose in motivating the employees, their continuous information about policy, goals and organization strategy. The periodicity is important because it ensures the constant communication. Sometimes this type of communication is gaining a preferred tempt, moving only towards the employees, considered as having priority responsibilities. It can have place even when only the manager is transmitting orders and instructions to the employees, without being too preoccupied about their information.If the organization is in changing, the downwards communication must be used to change opinions, attitudes, to waste restrictions and fear towards misinformation in order to support the employees to comply with these changes. This type of communication requires a feedback. That is why it is completed with bottom up communication, from the employees to the manager. These, as they understand the downwards communication, can communicate their answers. The manager must pay attention to the information he receives, thanks to the employees tendency to say only good stuff to the boss: it may appear the deliberate misinformation. ttp://ezinearticles. com/? Informal-Communication—How-It-Differs-Fro m-Formal-Communication&id=5129153 Informal Communication – How It Differs From Formal Communication oth informal communication and formal communication take place in any organization whether it be business or our personal family lives. But we need to recognize the difference. Informal communication is casual and spontaneous, whereas formal communication is more thought-out and prepared from learned experiences or organized training that present rules and conventions authoritated by business and formal etiquette.Informal communication comes from communication activities outside of those formally learned at home through discipline, or at school through education, or in business through our own personal experiences and formal training. It falls under the social communication of grapevines and rumors, casual conversations and inter-relational activities outside of the formal or public arenas. We do not behave the same way at work as we do at home or at play. I always say that peo ple are at their best at work. We really don't know someone until we've stayed with them outside of work for a few days-or a few hours even, with some people.Informal communication may not be as reliant as formal communication where more accountability is expected. In an organizational setting, such as business, or association and the like, communication is connected with official status-quo or protocols of the formal channels of structure and culture which the line of manager/subordinate reporting system is expectedly accepted. In order to understand informal communication, we need to understand formal communication and then realize that informal communication is what takes place without the formal addition of convention and ceremonies.In business the different forms of formal communication include departmental functionality, activities taking place within meeting and conference settings, verbal and written communication through telephone, memos and bulletins, etc. It is safe to al so recognize that informal communication may be vulnerable to being deceptive and imprecise in its casualness – conscious or unconscious. In a formal setting, people take the time to recognize the consequences of transmitting any wrong or incomplete information. But in an informal setting, the quality of communication may be affected by the more relaxed or careless attitude or behaviour.However, both formal and informal communication is found in an organization, depending on the level of business experience and training one possesses in his or her personal life. An organization can make efficient use of informal communication by confirming and affirming that which is being communicated by the untrained or less trained individual Informal communication, like formal communication can be expressed verbally or non-verbally by words, tone of voice, signs such as glances and gestures and even silence.For the purpose of effective communication, one needs to identify and affirm anyth ing that may be communicated, if unsure of the true meaning behind the communicator. Article Source: http://EzineArticles. com/5129153 http://www. blurtit. com/q616802. html Formal communication  is when people use the rules of language in a conversation or in writingformat. In a conversation, it would be more likely for you to use  formal communication  when in aninterview  or writing a letter to a business or maybe work. Informal  communication  is when people do not use the rules of language and may use slang in conversation.It would be more likely for you to use informal  communication  when you see a friend on the streets and you have a chat. It would also be informal like chatting on MSN or Facebook. The main difference between formal and informal  communication, aside from the language that is used, is the setting in which we use them. Formal communication  would be used in a formal setting where  communication  efforts are ‘dressed’ up in order to impress. For example, in aninterview  to get into University, you would not use slang or colloquialisms. Informal  communicationis of course the opposite of formal.When using informal language, the rules of language that are applied to  formal communication  are not applied so people use many more colloquialisms and often  slang words. This form of  communication  is most commonly used face to face between a friend of relative although due to advancements in  communication  technology, informal language is now used in texting, talking  on the phone, on social networking sites or an instant message conversation. Other examples of  formal communication  can also be non-verbal for example in a letter.In this circumstance and in others, it is important to address people in the correct way for example, Sir, Madam or Doctor. When beginning a letter to a person you do not know, you must start with ‘To Whom it may concern’. When in a formal sit uation such as  at work  or in an  interview, some people tend to  adopt  a more formal tone of voice. For  formal communication  in written form, impeccable grammar and spelling is a must. For spoke  communication, a  great deal  of emphasis is placed on the quality of the speaking voice and correct pronunciation.We use informal  communication  throughout most of our days. You may greet your friends or relatives with a hug or kiss rather than a formal handshake. You will become much more relaxed around these people and not feel the need to make an effort with your voice. You will be less careful with your language choices and more inclined to use colloquialisms and perhaps even slang, if you are around your friends. You will often use informal communication when you know people well such as freind and family. Some friends or family memebers may use terms that only their own group would understand.Local groups might have their own ways of speaking, for exampl e some people in sothern england might say things like ‘ hi you mate, how's it going?. ‘ if you belong in this group, you will appreciate this as a warm friendly greeting. Formal communication is for example, at a hospital reception you might expect the receptionist to say somethin like:'good morning. How can I help you? ‘ this formal communication might be understood by wide range of peole. Formal communication also shows respect for others. nformal communication would be like what we are doing here, online chatting or just having a conversation with a friend.Formal Communication would be writing a business or other letter within the guidelines of that genre. Such as a cover letter for a resume', or a thank you letter or note for a present received. http://www. easycommunication. info/formal-communication ————————————————- FORMAL COMMUNICATION Websites D esigning|access to mysql|Software Development India|home broadband offers|Serviced Offices in London Formal communication is that which is connected with the formal organizational arrangement and the official status r the place of the communicator and the receiver. It moves through the formal channels authoritatively accepted positions in the organization chart. Formal communication is mostly in black and white. Formal communication can be defined as, â€Å"A presentation or written piece that strictly adheres to rules, conventions, and ceremony, and is free of colloquial expressions. † It connotes the flow of the data by the lines of authority formally acknowledged in the enterprise and its members are likely to communicate with one another strictly as per channels constituted in the structure.Thus, it is a purposeful effort to influence the flow of communication so as to guarantee that information flows effortlessly, precisely and timely. It emphasizes the essence of formal channel of communication. The different forms of formal communication include; departmental meetings, conferences, telephone calls, company news bulletins, special interviews and special purpose publications. The main advantage of formal communication is that the official channels facilitate the habitual and identical information to communicate without claiming much of managerial attention.Essentially, executives and mangers may devote most of their precious time on matters of utmost significance. But at the same time, the weakness of formal communication should not go unaccounted. Communication through channel of command greatly obstructs free and uninterrupted flow of communication. It is, generally, time consuming, cumbersome and leads to a good deal of distortion. 3http://management. about. com/od/begintomanage/tp/newmgrmistake. htm Managing can be a little difficult at first. A recent poll found that more than 50% of managers received NO training before starting the job.Here i s a list of the most common mistakes new managers make so you can avoid making them too. (If you think I missed one, use the â€Å"Readers Respond† link at the bottom to add a new one. ) 1. Think you know everything. If you were just promoted to Production Manager, you may feel you know everything about production. Even if that were true, and it isn't, you sure don't know everything about the most important part of your new job, managing people. Listen to the people around you. Ask for their input when appropriate. Keep an open mind. 2.Show everyone who's in charge. Trust me, everyone in your group knows who the new manager is. You don't have to make a big show about being â€Å"the boss†. You do, however, have to demonstrate that, as the boss, you are making a positive difference. 3. Change everything. Don't re-invent the wheel. Just because the way something is done isn't the way you would do it, it isn't necessarily wrong. Learn the difference between â€Å"differe nt† and â€Å"wrong†. 4. Be afraid to do anything. Maybe you didn't ask for the promotion. Maybe you are not sure you can do the job.Don't let that keep you from doing the job the best you can. Upper management wouldn't have put you into the job if they didn't have confidence that you could handle it. 5. Don't take time to get to know your people. Maybe you worked alongside these people for years. That doesn't mean you know them. Learn what makes them excited, how to motivate them, what they fear or worry about. Get to know them as individuals, because that's the only way you can effectively manage them. Your people are what will make or break you in your quest to be a good manager.Give them your attention and time. 6. Don't waste time with your boss. Since he/she just promoted you, surely he/she understands how busy you are and won't need any of your time, right? Wrong. Your job, just like it was before you became a manager, is to help your boss. Make sure to budget ti me to meet with him/her to both give information and to receive guidance and training. 7. Don't worry about problems or problem employees. You can no longer avoid problems or hope they will work themselves out. When something comes up, it is your job to figure out the best solution and get it done.That doesn't mean you can't ask for other's input or assistance, but it does mean you are the person who has to see it gets taken care of. 8. Don't let yourself be human. Just because you are the boss doesn't mean you can't be human, that you can't laugh, or show emotion, or make an occassional mistake. 9. Don't protect your people. The people in your group will be under pressure from every direction. Other departments may want to blame you for failed interfaces. Your boss may want to dump all the unpleasant jobs on your department. HR may decide the job classifications in your area are overpaid.It's your job to stand up for your people and make sure they are treated as fairly as possible. They will return the loyalty. 10. Avoid responsibility for anything. Like it or not, as the manager you are responsible for everything that happens in your group, whether you did it, or knew about it, or not. Anything anyone in your group does, or doesn't do, reflects on you. You have to build the communications so there are no surprises, but also be prepared to shoulder the responsibility. It goes hand-in-hand with the authority. 3. http://www. ehow. com/info_8423578_implications-organizational-change. tml Implications of Organizational Change A static environment can quickly antiquate an organization. Therefore, change is a constant and necessary requirement for organizations to stay competitive and survive in this volatile global economy. Organizational change can help streamline business processes and eliminate redundant systems or groups. However, it can also have negative consequences. To minimize the negative impacts, strategic change in an organization should always seek to achieve advancement in both business and employee performance.The overall change process should reflect a â€Å"win-win† situation for both the organization and its employees. The Process of Change * To implement sustainable organizational change, companies employ a three-prong phased approach. The most important and difficult phase of the process is unfreezing, which involves identifying and unlearning wrong past behavior that are sometimes ingrained in an organization's culture. The most significant indicator of success at this phase is employee acceptance. If an organization manages employee resistance promptly and effectively at this stage, it will ensure the success of the next two phases.The second phase, changing, involves replacing past behavior with new behavior through significant redevelopment and training. Refreezing, the final phase of the process, reinforces and sustains the new behavior through continued visibility and measurement of success. One reinforcement technique is the employment of a praise and reward system. Praise and reward systems elicit high performance and motivate employees to embrace change. Employee Resistance to Change * A changing organization should not ignore the human element. It is important to change business activities within a company.If employees are not involved or are not willing to accept change, the process is likely to fail. Employees resist change because they are afraid that to lose a job or have to take on additional responsibilities that an employee is either unqualified or unequipped to handle. Using encouraging and inspiring techniques to implement change demonstrates to an employee that she is not being forced to accept change, but is an integral part of the process. An employee feels like a significant contributor in the work place environment when he is part of a successful revolution. * Sponsored Links Change Mgmt Training Certification training to manage the people side of change www. change-ma nagement. com Employee Turnover * After a major reorganization, businesses typically undergo some employee turnover. An employee may feel that the environment is too unstable and might seek employment elsewhere where she feels more secure. High employee turnover can severely affect an organization's productivity due to loss of skilled workers and the need to recruit and train new people. Sometimes the loss of resources can also result in loss of business revenue as an employee may take key accounts with him.To abate employee resistance and turnover, an organization should initiate a deliberated change management process that explains the significance and implications of the change and guides employees afterward. Deteriorating Work Climate * Organizational changes that lead to ambiguity and job uncertainty create a declining work environment, which can negatively affect the economic health of an organization. The most detrimental impact is mortality, which is a clear sign that a busi ness transformation has gone horribly wrong.An organization can die when change occurs too quickly or erratically. In a deteriorating environment, employees become self-preserving, less productive, unmotivated and fearful. Avoiding ineffective changes and implementing positive ones will promote a productive corporate culture and prevent organizational death What could it have done differently to facilitate the changes? * Ensure that the platform for change are fully understood through consultation with those involved * Develop ; communicate a vision with credible and honest explanation of why change is required. Determine of what needs to occur to move from the current to the future scenario. * Plan implementation period carefully. * Determine how the change process will be overlaid on day to day activities * Involve the people impacted by the change in the planning process such as their commitment and motivated to support the change. * Define ; communicate objectives, responsibilit ies and timescales carefully. * Seek advice on implementation methods and timescales from expert. Meet with others who have implemented change and learn from them http://humanresources. bout. com/od/changemanagement/a/change_planning. htm Planning and Analysis in Change  Management While the  executive vision and support, clearly communicated, is important, it is not enough. More fundamental approaches to planning and analysis need to occur to encourage effectivechange management. * Assess the readiness of your organization to participate in the change. Instruments are available to help you assess readiness, as well as qualitative information from internal or external staff and consultants. Answer questions such as these.What is the level of trust within your organization? Do people feel generally positive about their work environment. Do you have a history of open  communication? Do you share financial information? * These factors have a tremendous impact on people’s a cceptance of and willingness to change. If you can start building this positive and supportive environment prior to the change, you have a great head start on the change implementation. * Turn the change vision into an overall plan and timeline, and plan to practice forgiveness when the timeline encounters barriers.Solicit input to the plan from people who â€Å"own† or work on the processes that are changing. * Gather information about and determine ways to communicate the reasons for the changes. These may include the changing economic environment, customer needs and expectations, vendor capabilities, government regulations, population demographics, financial considerations, resource availability and company direction. * Assess each potential impact to organization processes, systems, customers and staff. Assess the risks and have a specific improvement or mitigation plan developed for each risk. Plan the communication of the change. People have to understand the context, t he reasons for the change, the plan and the organization’s clear expectations for their changed roles and responsibilities. Nothing communicates expectations better than improved measurements and rewards and recognition. * Determine the WIIFM (what’s in it for me) of the change for each individual in your organization. Work on how the change will affect each individual directly, and how to make the change fit his or her needs as well as those of the organization. Some respondents found the development of a theoretical underpinning for the change effective in helping individuals understand the need for change. * Be honest and worthy of trust. Treat people with the same respect you expect from them. Effective change management can help you successfully implement any change necessary for your future prosperity and profitability. 4. http://smallbusiness. chron. com/happens-organization-changes-its-strategy-2690. html What Happens When an Organization Changes Its Strategy ? Strategy is the term given to the overarching goals and objectives of a business. Strategy decisions affect what line of business a company is in, who it serves and how it serves them, as well as how the company operates internally. It an be difficult to predict exactly what will happen when an organization changes its strategy, but companies experience a number of common positive and negative effects when going through a strategic transition. Sponsored Link Leadership Development Program in SG in Feb. For Mid-level Managers from US$7660. Find out now www. ccl. rg/APAC Significance Organizational strategy guides all managerial decisions from the front line to the board room. Strategic plans act as a roadmap that helps businesses to achieve the grand vision of their owners and top-level executives in practical ways. Changing an organization's strategy can change the way the organization operates, altering everything from organizational structure to the daily routines of employees. Pr ocess The process of changing a corporate strategy can be broken down into four distinct steps: planning, implementation, monitoring and review.In the planning stage, managers form their strategic vision into concrete, time-bound goals and objectives. Research and testing are vital in the planning stage, as managers attempt to gain as much information as possible about the viability of the change. The implementation phase sees the change put into action according to the plan. Monitoring is a less of a phase and more of a continual activity that helps managers to gain insight into how well their plans are working and pinpoint potential problems. In the review tage, managers analyze information gained from monitoring activities and decide whether the strategy needs to be altered yet again. Positive Effects Changing strategy can have a number of positive effects. New strategic directions can help a company to adapt to changes in the legal environment or the marketplace. New strategies can help a company to perform more effectively or cost-efficiently, or can help them to enter a new, more profitable industry or market segment. Changes in strategy can also help a stagnant company to reclaim its former growth rates. Negative EffectsNot all of the effects of change are positive. Internal employee resistance can be a major barrier to effective change implementation, as certain people strongly resist any kind of change to the status quo or daily routine. There is also always the possibility of failure in new initiatives, leaving a company in a worse position than it was before the change. Considerations Regular changes in strategic direction are healthy and natural for a successful company. Markets, technology, legal issues and operational trends do not stay stagnant, and neither should a dynamic, adaptable company.Involve a wide range of people in your monitoring and planning activities on a regular basis to fully leverage the creativity of your workforce. http://www . ehow. com/about_6622983_organization-change-strategy. html Organization Change Strategy Organizational change is when an organization moves from one structural state to another. This process can happen in any number of forms and can involve corporate structure, strategy, processes, technology used, or culture, among others. Change can be small and incremental, or it can radically change the way an organization works, from the ground up.Why Do Organizations Change? * Organizations change due to internal or external factors. Examples of external environmental factors include workplace demographics, or what employees look for in benefits or bonuses; what technology is available to do the job more efficiently; and what the customer base is interested in buying and for how much. Internal environmental factors might include organizational growth, for example, becoming too large for former organizational structures, or poor performance. Resistance to Change * Individuals will each react to change in their own way, from active resistance to active support.Active resistance is the most disruptive to change, although by listening to the points of people who oppose the change, you can learn valid problems with your change strategy and your end goal. Some of a company's most committed employees might be the most vocal opponents of a change effort. Some of the primary reasons for active resistance include disrupted habits, having a personality that is change-resistant, being uncertain about the person's place in the company after the change takes place, having too much change recently, or being deprived of power. Unfreezing The first step for effective organizational change is known as unfreezing. Make clear the vision for change, communicate it to your employees and create a sense of urgency that the change is actually needed. From here, you can garner support and build a sense of community behind the change and get employees to feel like they had input in the change as well. Executing * Executing change is the actual process of the change itself. As the change happens, continue providing support for your employees who are experiencing the change, and point out small successes as they happen to keep spirits up about the change.As obstacles arise, eliminate them to prevent them from building up and increasing resistance to the change that is already in progress. Refreezing * Once the change has occurred, refreeze organizational culture. You should show to your employees how you've succeeded by executing the change, as well as showing where more change might be beneficial. Use this to create a culture of change instead of a staid one, which will allow future changes

Reading responce Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading responce - Assignment Example Tan further proves that her mother’s English is â€Å"imperfect† by citing several circumstances experienced by her mother (78). She also points out that her mother has noticed her own limitations as she was asked to pretend to be Mrs. Tan on a phone call one time, and talked to doctors when her mother needed to get more information about findings (78). This article shows the power of language, English specifically, in society. Similar to what is shown, people who are relatively â€Å"good† in English tend to ignore those comparatively â€Å"poor† in communicating their ideas. In communities today individuals likely equate the inability of â€Å"perfect† verbalization to lack of comprehension, which is unlikely in most cases. The complexity of language contributes to how one may find it difficult to speak flawlessly, but does not necessarily imply one’s being â€Å"limited.† This essay, showing the author’s vivid understanding of her mother’s imperfect English as a daughter rather than a writer, gives readers an eye-opener of how they should pattern their language depending on who they are talking to, without

Health Program Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Program Evaluation - Essay Example As the officials in charge of social programs happen to be humans and thus fallible, either deliberately or inadvertently, a strong requirement for accountability keeps them alert and keeps such programs, efficient and productive. As the state run health and social programs happen to be complex and intricate, so far as their scope, implementation, assessment and budgeting is concerned, an accurate and scientific system for the evaluation of such programs enables the state and the citizens in determining and enforcing accountability on the officials and professionals managing such vital programs, that are often so crucial, so far as the stability and progress in a welfare state is concerned. "Program evaluations are systematic studies using scientific research methods to assess how well a program is working (Shipman, 2008, p.1). In the contemporary era of constrained budgets, when health has become a major political and public issue, it is imperative that the agencies managing the health and social programs are able to authenticate the expenses incurred by them in the light of the pragmatic and desirable outcome achieved by them. In that sense, evaluation facilitates the people and the state agencies with the much desired tool, which can be used to gauge as to what extent these programs contribute to the envisaged goals and helps them cross check and improve the performance of such programs on a regular basis. Establishing accountability, so far as health and social programs are concerned becomes a mere exercise in words, unless it is backed by authentic and verifiable data. Accountability can be enforced only if it is supported by concrete evidence that brings it within the framework of legal and statutory remedies. Herein lies the relevance of evaluation. Many experts like to put forward the argument that government agencies have miserably failed, so far as the management of health programs is concerned and the privatization of these services is the only possible panacea. Such individuals fail to see that entrusting such crucial programs in private hands can possibly further augment the scope for inefficiency, as the private firms work purely for profit motives and lack any welfare oriented guidelines. Infact, it simply does not matter who stands at the helm of affairs, whether it is some state official or a private firm. The point that deserves the tax payer's immediate attention is th at what kind and quality of evaluation programs are being employed to analyze such programs It is pivotal that the evaluation programs being used to assess the health or social programs should be accurate enough to solicit a wide range

Marketing plan of Aberdeen Beach Regeneration Essay

Marketing plan of Aberdeen Beach Regeneration - Essay Example 3 1.0: Background Analysis and Assumptions 4 1.1: Background Analysis 4 1.2: Assumptions 4 2.0: Marketing Objectives and Strategies 6 2.1: Marketing Objectives 6 3.0: Alternative Plans and Mixes 8 4.0: Budget 10 5.0: Implementation Programme 11 References 13 Executive Summary This paper carries out a background analysis to provide assumptions for a market plan for the regeneration of Aberdeen Beach. The paper explains the marketing objectives and strategies of the regeneration of Aberdeen Beach market plan. Alternative plans and mixes are explained, in detail, to predetermine the budget requirements of the market plan. After drawing the market plan budget for the regeneration of Aberdeen Beach, a detailed implementation programme for the market plan is provided, at the end. 1.0: Background Analysis and Assumptions 1.1: Background Analysis Aberdeen Beach is endowed with abundant capital and a good regional market. Also, the regional market for Aberdeen Beach is ideal for market segmen tation. With a good city image and heightened technology, Aberdeen Beach is capable of occupying the market share rapidly. For instance, there are few amusement parks and large shopping centres within Aberdeen. Therefore, market penetration and acquisition of a significant market share is highly attainable. There is an opportunity of opening a new tourist market in Aberdeen Beach, and utilizing new investors who are available. However, building a large market centre and an amusement park for Aberdeen Beach is a time consuming project that requires long-term investment and collection of funds for that purpose. In addition, the project may be adversely affected by a change in customer preferences and slow market growth. Changes in industry policy and economic recession are potential threats to the regeneration of the marketing plan for Aberdeen Beach. Based on the marketing audit and the SWOT analysis for Aberdeen Beach, some assumptions have been made so as to be able to address sign ificant issues in the formulation of a supreme marketing plan for Aberdeen Beach. While drawing these assumptions, capabilities and the potential of achieving success in marketing for Aberdeen Beach have been taken into consideration. 1.2: Assumptions In the development of a market plan for the regeneration of Aberdeen Beach, assumptions that will enable the organisation achieve its objectives have been made. Through these assumptions, specific, measurable, achievable and time bound objectives for the regeneration of Aberdeen Beach have been developed. The first assumption involves the number of tourists. It is expected that the number or volume of tourists will increase by 10% every year. Therefore, in the first year, there will be a ten percent (10%) increase in the number of tourists who will visit the Aberdeen Beach. Secondly, it assumed that profits that will be earned from tickets will be considerable during summer, and revenue is expected to increase by 15% because there will be many people who would want to use the facilities within the Aberdeen Beach and pay for them. Currently, car parking at Aberdeen Beach is free. With an increase in the number of visitors, it is expected that a car parking fee will be introduced. Finally, through proper targeting, it is expected that 36% of the market share will be acquired by introducing an amusement park and a high-level bazaar in Aberdeen

Figuring out how to deal with china VO1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Figuring out how to deal with china VO1 - Essay Example Despite the challenge, it was important that the company directly entered into the Chinese internet market. Evidently, the Chinese servers do not get all the information they need from Baidu and that is why they opt for Google when they want materials from outside China. It is also evident that the success of Baidu and the apparent failure of Google in China are just but a perception. There are therefore chances that Google can do something to change this perception and experience some success as well by making improvement its content and adopting a Chinese name. Based on the 1997-2005 statistics of internet usage and access in China, the Chinese internet market is large and fast growing. According to information from the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC, 2005), Chinese internet market grew from 0 in 1997 to about 10 million by the beginning of 2000. Within the next two years, this had risen to over 35 million and by the second half of 2005, this figure was already over 100 million. At the same time, the number of users with broadband access is rising at an attractive rate. This figure grew to almost five million in its first year, 2002, and by the second half of 2005, it was over 50 million. The rate of growth of broadband users is faster. However, the actual size and growth of the Chinese market is larger than this given that the figures do not include users in Macao, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The figures were also obtained via fixed-line telephones and this means the study did not fully capture the actual market represented by the young people. The Google search service has evolved one that was less reliable to a more reliable search service. Since its establishment, the Google search service aimed at improving offering superior search experiences than those of Yahoo and Vista (Lawrence, 2009). Currently, the search service offers super-fast results that are highly matched and more relevant

Business Policy Concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Business Policy Concepts - Essay Example A good corporate strategy should integrate an organization's goals, policies, and action sequences (tactics) into a cohesive whole. The success of Japanese companies revealed implementation policies which appeared to be unique but have now been shown to be valid in many business environments, for example management by walking around (MBWA) proved to be a successful technique for Honda. Senior management's contacts with key people resulted in appropriate choice of policies and to the success of the company philosophy. This shows that corporate choice of strategy and implementation of that strategy involves many different concepts, theories and frameworks. An understanding of major choices of corporate policies and their advantages and disadvantages is critical to the understanding of business policy process {Johnson et al, 2005]. In a perfect world a strategy planned by the management will proceed according to plan and be implemented. Unfortunately any belief that strategy can be formulated on the basis of intended and deliberate actions to result in commercial success is far from the truth. This concept rules out any opportunity to adapt to a changing market situation. In a number of cases a situation may develop where incremental changes in the strategy may result in a more advantageous position for the company. This is a positive example of strategic drift. A preplanned and formulated strategy also assumes an organization to be homogeneous where management decisions from the top can be implemented in full. In practice the decisions are effected by power behavior, cultural and political factors. Quinn [cited in Peppard et al, 1996] argued that strategy develops incrementally as a result of decision made due to developing market situations and other organizational experiences. This strategic drift results in a course which is often significantly different from formal planning. Drift in strategic planning is a fact of organizational strategy. It does not mean that strategic policy making is a useless process as it will eventually drift into something new. It only recognizes that changes often become necessary due to extraneous factors and require adjustments to the strategy to keep the broader strategy on course. Porter's 5 Forces Porter's five forces is a useful tool for analyzing the factors impacting on strategy formulation. [Porter, 1980] identified forces that impact every business. The objective of the strategy is to use these competing forces to result in a positive impact on the business. These forces identified by Porter are the driving forces of the industry. The strategy analysis thus analyses the impact of these forces on a particular business and how to minimize the impact of the negative forces and maximize the benefits of the positive forces. The five forces are: 1. The threat of new entrants 2. Bargaining power of suppliers 3. Bargaining power

Architectural Criticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Architectural Criticism - Essay Example Conventionally, each structural designer would wish to demonstrate considerable styles of modernity in his or her work (Roper 13). This explains why modern buildings convey aspects of contemporary art and delusional creativity. Practically, ideologies motivating advancement in architecture result from dynamics within the consumer market. Public and private consumers need real estate assets with unique aesthetic value. In this regard, we will appraise a current architectural development within the public platform, and understand the depth and breadth of objective concerns underlying such developments. The London Olympic Stadium In the recent past, London 2012 Olympic Stadium featured as one of the most controversial architectural design in the world. The 80,000 capacity stadium is located in Stratford’s Olympic park, in England. Its sole purpose of construction was to host final track and field events for the concluded 2012 Olympic Games. It is famous for hosting numerous elite political and social personalities during the opening ceremonies, including the iconic sky fall of James Bond. This stadium was designed by Sir Robert McAlpine in 2007. McAlpine was previously known for playing a supportive role in designing the spectacular Wembley Stadium in England (Lewis 28). After completion of all design prospects, construction commenced in November 2008 and ended in February 2011. Upon completion, the stadium’s design capacity was estimated at 80,000, with 25,000 permanent seats and 55,000 temporary ones. Apart from the sitting space, the facility also housed numerous changing rooms, parking garages and toilets for participating athletes and spectators. Architectural Facts about the Stadium On completion, Olympic Stadium was identified as one of the most spectacular public structures in the world. Such credit results from the fact that the stadium has unique architectural designs, with significant touch of fantasy and modernity. All the 55,000 temporar y seats are located on the top tier, which is detachable from the main part of the stadium. After completion of the games, the top tier was removed leaving only 25,000 seats on the lower decks (Roper 16). The aspect of including a dismountable upper deck was meant to address the issue of rigidity or permanence of the structure after Olympics. It was possible that Stratford would not get another foreseeable opportunity to host major sporting events like the 2012 summer games. With respect to this premise, designers would dismantle the structure into a small stadium with a conventional capacity for local events. Above the removable tier was a cable-supported roof made of glass. According to the design specifications, transparency of the roof would eliminate the need of artificial illumination during daytime events. Both the upper tier and the roof were supported by lightweight steel frames and low-carbon concrete (Bullivant 01). Actually, concrete used contained approximately 40% less carbon compared to normal concrete. This technical specification was meant to enhance implementation of green energy principles in sporting events. Use of low-carbon concrete is in line with England’s goals of promoting use of renewable energy sources. Despite its role in addressing green energy objectives, low-carbon concrete offers less structural strength compared to normal concrete. In addition, lightweight steel frames used for support the roof compromised further on structural

Capital punishment the United States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Capital punishment the United States - Essay Example 36]. Other capital offenses include treason, aggravated rape, espionage, large scale drug trafficking and aggravated kidnapping among others. Capital punishment has been a subject of much debate in recent times. The reasons that form the basis of this debate are crosscutting and include moral, religious, practical, philosophical and emotional. Proponents of capital punishment argue that it acts as a deterrent to crime, purges dangerous criminals from the society and that it is definitely more economical to execute than to keep criminals in prison [Megivern, James J 93]. Opponents of capital punishment argue that it does not deter crime, cheapens human life and discriminates along racial and social lines [Lane, Brian and Wilfred Gregg 12]. Others have argued that killing a person for killing another is hypocritical since it brings the state to the same level as the criminal. However, previous research as well as the statistics on crime tends not to support the argument that capital punishment deters criminal activity. On the contrary studies have shown that incidences of homicide are lower in states that do not sanction capital punishment than those that do [Harries KD 22]. This paper examines the practice, the effects and whether or not capital punishment serves as a deterrent to crime. According to the SP file there have been about 15,000 capital punishment exec... The military courts executed 160 errant officers between 1930 and 1961. A massive mass execution occurred on December 1862 where 38 people were killed by hanging in Mankato, Minnesota. Out of the 38 states that sanction capital punishment, Texas has had the largest number of executions - 378 since 1979 to November 2006 [Amnesty International-1997 Executions]: The Federal government has reported less activity in regard to executions and has executed only 3 people for the last 27 years. The Legal Process Once an offender is convicted of a crime that qualifies for the death penalty, the legal course involves four stages: - 1. Sentencing - involves trial like proceeding where a jury decides on the appropriate sentence though it's the judge's discretion to make the final decision [Kerr, Norbert L. and Robert M 33-75]. 2. Direct review. After the sentencing stage the case moves to the direct review level. Here the process is similar to that of an appeal. This court evaluates the decision of the sentencing court to establish the validity of the judgment. If this court does not find fault with the previous judgment from the sentencing hearing, then it ratifies the judgment. If it does find fault then it can void the judgment and/or order a repeat haring. The decision by the court is considered final. 3. The Collateral review. This is the only way that a judgment by the direct review court can be upset. Most states have this form of review. The purpose of collateral review1 is to allow the defendant to dispute the previous decisions on grounds of previously unavailable evidence. 4. Federal habeas corpus. This is the fourth level and is the only exclusive way that a state capital defendant can challenge a death penalty in a Federal court. It exists for the

Classroom Assessment in Fifth Grade Science Essay Example for Free

Classroom Assessment in Fifth Grade Science Essay A study was conducted to explore the hypothesis that performance assessments foster a more positive motivational orientation for students than supplied-response assessments which tend to truncate students’ learning strategies (Parkes Stefanou, 2003). This was in response to general dissatisfaction arising from large-scale, high-stakes multiple choice testing, particularly among the older students who experienced higher levels of anxiety and mistrust with respect to standardized tests.   It partook of a cost-benefit analysis of the consequences of this particular type of assessment procedure to determine whether the positive outweighed the negative. Traditional paper and pencil tests (PP), a laboratory task format of assessment (lab), and a performance assessment (PA) were imposed on three different fifth grade science classes, particularly involving Goal Orientations to supply quantitative data.   Qualitative output was also obtained through taped interviews of the three classes.   Quantitatively, goal orientation seemed to be influenced by the type of assessment used. When paired with the qualitative data, students seemed to perform well in PP testing because they equated a good grade with competence and ability, and they believed that performing well in PP testing reflected this competency (Parkes Stefanou, 2003).   However, if receiving grades was removed from the equation, students became more receptive to PA testing and were motivated to take risks and explore actually doing science rather than just knowing science (Parkes Stefanou, 2003). One of the limitations of the study was that qualitative information was necessary to complete the picture presented by the quantitative data.   Although the study was by no means definitive as to whether or not assessment types contributed to student motivation, it clearly showed that when paired with the stakes or consequences attributed to the assessment results, it affects the students’ goal orientations. Reference List Parkes, J. and Stefanou, C. (2003). Effects of classroom assessment on student motivation on fifth-grade science. The Journal of Educational Research, 96 (3), 152-162.

Play Therapy Essay Example for Free

Play Therapy Essay Sometimes children go through difficult passages in their lives. It therefore becomes prudent to provide them with effective ways of helping them ease through these passages. Infact, children are good teachers and they know what they want and what is right for them (Kottman, 1993). All they need is just space to do it. Play therefore becomes very important in releasing these pent-up emotions, feelings of anxiety, fear disappointment, aggression and insecurity (Chethik, Morton. 2000). This brings us to the issue of play therapy. What is play therapy? Play therapy refers to a method of psychotherapy with children in which a child’s fantasies and symbolic meanings of his/her play are used as a medium for understanding and communication with him/her (Landreth, 2002). Through this method, the child is helped to control his/her emotions, thoughts, wishes and needs using games, toys and mediums such as clay, drawings and paint. By doing so, the child is helped to understand the muddled feelings and upsetting events that he/she has not had a chance or skill to sort out properly. Thus through this symbolic representation, the child gains a sense of control over events that in reality, seem uncontrollable. Unlike in adult therapy where one has to explain what is troubling him, children use play to communicate at their own level and pace without any feeling of interrogation or threat using toys as their words and play as their language (Landreth, 2002). Rationale for play therapy In play therapy, the symbolic of function play is vital in providing children with a means of expressing their inner world. This use of play therapy is rooted on a development understanding of children. According to Piaget (1962), children at the pre-operational stage (2-7 yrs) are acquiring language in which symbols represent mental objects. A child’s play in this stage becomes increasingly imaginary and fantasy-driven. The child is internally improving his/her understanding and knowledge but lacks the external ability to communicate this enhanced way of processing within the world. Play thus becomes the medium through which the child communicates this internal awareness of self to others. Piaget further asserts that during the concrete operational state (8-11 yrs) the child grows in his/her personal ability to reason logically and organize thoughts coherently. He/she is unable to express certain complicated emotions such as resentment or guilt due to the need for abstract thought to understand them. Play then helps the child bridge the gap between concrete experience and abstract thought. Landreth (2002) identifies basic principles necessary in play therapy. These include that children’s natural language is play, that they have an inherent tendency towards growth and maturity and lastly, and are themselves capable of positive self-direction since they posses the capacity to act responsibly. Play is a natural language from which children express themselves (Landreth, 2002). And as stated earlier, developmentally, it bridges the gap between concrete experience and abstract thought. Children gain a sense of control through play and also learn coping skills (Chethik, Morton. 2000). At times, children also receive other types of treatment. Children for instance that are unable to control their attention impulses, have a tendency to react violently, or experience severe anxiety would be included in play therapy. The therapy addresses the child’s psychological symptoms (Chethik, Morton. 2000). The child will also receive play therapy to alleviate low self-esteem feelings, excessive worry, incompetence and helplessness (Chethik, Morton. 000). In play therapy, toys are viewed as the child’s words and play as the child’s language – a language of activity. Play is then to children what psychotherapy is to adults. The use of toys enables the child to transfer his anxieties, fears, fantasies from his own feelings and guilt to objects rather then people. Through this process, the safety of children from their own feelings is guaranteed because it enables them to distance themselves from those traumatic experiences. By acting out a frightening experience symbolically through play, or reversing the outcome in play activity, the child moves towards an inner resolution and then he/she is able to cope with or adjust to problems (Axline, 1989). Through the play processes, the child is allowed to consider new possibilities not possible in reality thus greatly expanding the expression of self (Bratton. Et al. 2005). Also, within the safety of the play therapy experience, the child explores the unfamiliar and develops a knowing that is both experiential – feelings and cognitive. In a nutshell, the unfamiliar becomes familiar and the child expresses outwardly what takes place inwardly. Therefore, a major function of play in play therapy is the changing of what may be unmanageable in real life to a manageable situation via symbolic representation, through which the child is provided with opportunities for learning to cope (Axline, 1989). The process of play therapy The initial focus of therapy is in building a relationship between a child and the therapist. This relationship is what provides dynamic growth and healing for the child. It is therefore a very important tool because a child will readily express himself every time he/she feels respected and accepted. According to Landreth (1991), there are principles that should provide guidelines for establishment of a therapeutic relationship. Some of the guidelines include that the therapist is genuinely interested in the child. Also, the therapist experiences unqualified acceptance of the child and does not wish that the child were different in some way. He further creates a feeling of safety and permissiveness in the relationship so the child feels free to explore and express himself/herself totally. Landreth further asserts that the therapist should always be sensitive to the child’s feelings and gently reflect those feelings in a manner that encourages the child to develop self-understanding (Landreth, 2002). Additionally, the therapist should deeply believe in the child’s capacity to act responsibly and respect the child’s ability to solve personal problems and give him the opportunity to do so. He should also trust the child’s inner direction and to lead in all areas of relationship and avoid directing the child’s play. This therapist should appreciate the gradual nature of the therapeutic process in a slow manner, and finally he should establish only the therapeutic limits that help the child accept personal and appropriate responsibility. The primary objective of the process is not only to solve the problem but to help in the growth of the child. The therapist primarily meets with the child alone and arranges time to meet with parents separately or with the child depending with the situation. The structure of the sessions should be consistently maintained to provide a feeling of stability and safety for the child. In the session, the therapist uses specific techniques to assess how a child experiences his/her world and how he/she communicates and reacts to events and people in his/her own world. The child is led to become aware of what he/she is feeling and opportunities are given to express these feelings. Awareness is thus a very important aspect in play therapy because without it, change is not possible (Chethik, Morton. 2000). Throughout the therapy, the child is empowered and supported to learn more about who he/she thinks she/he is, to talk about things that are frightening or painful, to be self supportive as well as to experiment new behavior (Bratton. Et al. 2005). Since the child’s world is a world of action and activity, the therapy provides the therapist with an opportunity to enter the child’s world. The child lives out the past experience and related moments at the moment of play. Without the presence of play materials, the therapist could only talk with the child about aggressive behavior exhibited in the recent past. In play therapy however, whatever reason for referral, the therapist has the opportunity to experience and actively deal with that problem immediately. By so doing, the child plays out feelings by banging them to the surface, getting them out in the open, facing them and either abandoning them or learning to control them. Toys and materials Since toys and materials are part of this communicative process for children, careful attention must be given to their appropriate selection. The rule here is selection rather than accumulation. Please note that random assortment of acquired toys and materials often appear like junk rooms and they therefore doom the therapy process to failure. They should then be carefully selected for the contribution they make to accomplish the play objective and the extent to which they are consistent with the play therapy rationale. Some general guidelines to consider are that the tools should be durable and should communicate a message of â€Å"be yourself in playing† rather than â€Å"be careful. † They should provide children with a variety in choice of medium of expression. (Eliana, G. 1994). However, they need not be elaborate and above all they should not be complex. Remember that the first toys to be used were sticks. The tools should be age appropriately manageable so that the child will not be frustrated in his efforts to express himself/herself. No toy should require the child to seek the therapist’s help to manipulate. Landreth (1991) asserts that the toys and materials should facilitate establishment of a positive relationship with the child, testing of limits, exploration of real-life experiences, development of positive image, self-undertaking, expression of a wide range of feelings and opportunity to redirect behaviors unacceptable to others. These toys can be grouped into three basic classes viz; real-life toys such as a doll, a small cardboard box with rooms indicated by tape strips or felt pen markers, doll house furniture, pacifier and a small car. Secondly, there are those acting out or aggressive release toys such as handcuffs, toy guns, dart gun and toy soldiers, aggressive puppets, rubber knife and punching bags. Finally, there are toys for creative expression and emotional release such as crayons, newsprints, blue scissors, hand puppets, plain mask, and also sand trays. Setting limits in Play Therapy This is a very crucial part of this process. The structure of the therapeutic limits is what helps to make the experience a real life relationship (Eliana, G. 994). Limits in play therapy have advantages both practically and therapeutically since they preserve the therapeutic relationship; facilitate the child’s opportunities to learn self responsibility and self control. Provide the child with emotional security and physical safety and thus enabling the child to explore and express his/her inner emotional dimensions that perhaps have remained hidden in his/her other relationships (Axline, 1989). Boundaries are necessary here to provide predictability and thus the children are not allowed to do anything they want to do. The play therapy relationship has minimum limits (Eliana, G. 1994). Exploration is encouraged, messiness accepted and persistence is the guiding principle. Play therapy is a learning experience and thus limits are not set until they are needed. The limits are worded in such a way that the child is allowed to bring himself under control. Research and Results Play therapy is an approach based on well thought out, philosophically conceived, developmentally based and research supported approach to assisting children cope with and overcome the problems they experience in life (Bratton. Et al. 2005). It has therefore been demonstrated to be effective in a variety of children’s problems including, but not limited to, abuse and neglect, aggression and acting out, autism, fear and anxiety, grief, hospitalization, learning disabilities, chronic illnesses, withdrawn children and burn victims. In the case studies reported by Landreth, the views that play therapy requires a long-term commitment is totally unfounded. Conclusion Play therapy can thus help a child to become aware of his feelings and how those feelings manifest into his/ her behavior (Bratton. Et al. 2005). He/she learns to become better at regulating emotions and expressing them in constructive ways. This combination of skills may help a child to become more assertive, self confident and to have self respect and respect for others. He/she then get this assurance that he/she will be understood and accepted.

Overview Of Reality Television Programming

Overview Of Reality Television Programming Reality television programming has been around since the first broadcast of Candid Camera in the late 1940s, but this type of programming became more popular in recent years as a result of different factors. Rowen, (2000) attributed the debut of the Survivor in the year 2000 as the beginning of the infiltration of reality programming in todays television landscape. This type of television programming has now becoming popular among different television audience globally and has also gained recognition of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences who in 2003 added Best Reality Show as an Emmy category. While studies in reality television are relatively limited despite the recent surge in its programming, efforts is hereby made in this study to review or summarize previous research on reality television programming. The increase in reality television programming may undoubtedly be related to with the increasing number of cable channels, which allows advertisers to reach smaller markets (Hiebert and Gibbons, 2000) with the majority of reality television programming is geared towards the individuals under twenty five years old (Frank, 2003). MTV has been presenting the Real World to this target younger demographic for more than ten years. Frank (2003) suggests that younger viewers are attracted to reality television programmes because the programmes show individuals and situations which relates to what they are used to on daily basis. According to Rowen (2000), the popularity of reality television began with the debut of Survivor which was first aired in 2000. From thence, this genre of television programming started gaining attraction and attention on network primetime television. This was when reality programmes started to target an older demographic. There is a variety of programmes that still target the younger demographic, but now there are more programmes that target a much wider demographic. For example, network primetime programmes such as The Apprentice target the 18 49 demographic (Rowen, 2000). Because of this age range, it is most likely that a greater percentage of individuals now watch reality television today than in the time past. Nabi, Biely, Morgan, and Stitt, (2003) examined the genre of reality television programming itself. It was observed that a multidimensional space analysis of all television programmes indicates that reality television is a genre that is distinct from all of the other pre-existing genres. However, not all reality programmes can be considered as one cohesive genre. There are two dimensions with the first one is presented as a continuum due to its suitability for primetime programming. The second dimension is fiction-real, this is a continuum based on whether the programmes were portrayed as fictional or realistic based programmes. Some reality programmes have been listed as fictional because for some reasons, audience members do not perceive them as realistic (Nabi et al, 2003). Interestingly, not all reality programmes were classified as reality, and not all fictional programmes were classified as fictional. In another study, Nabi, Stitt, Halford and Finnerty, (2006) used multidimensional scaling to understand the subgroups of reality television programming. There were two dimensions along which viewers thought about reality television romance and competitiveness. Dating programmes were found to be a unique type of programming with no relationship with other programme types. The other subgroups of reality television programming were found to be fluid and difficult for viewers to separate one from another because of the overlap among the categories. As a way of creating better understanding, Nabi et al (2006) encourages reality television researchers to focus on the qualities of the programmes and not the categories. Some research has sought to discover why people watch reality television programmes. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) in a study, asked individuals to rate themselves on Reisss 16 basic life motives and also to report how much they viewed reality programmes and how much they enjoyed these programmes. Results indicated that the appeal to reality television programmes was dependent on the amount of reality television programmes watched by the individuals. The more reality programmes an individual reported liking, the more status oriented the individual is likely to be. Individuals found to place a higher value on vengeance were found to be more motivated by social life, less motivated by honour, more focused on order, and more concerned with romance. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) found that the reality television programmes that people prefer to watch are those that stimulate their motives and fundamental values the most. For example, people who place premium on romance in relationships are very much l ikely to watch The Bachelor, but if they value work or entrepreneurship, then they may prefer to go for The Apprentice reality programme. Therefore, it can be concluded that the motif for watching reality television programmes is based on their individual values and desires. Many individuals would easily indicate that they enjoy watching other people on reality television programmes, but this is not to say that the competitors are not aware that they are being watched. Nabi et al (2003) in their study concludes that people watch reality programmes because they enjoy watching real people instead of actors and that the uses and gratifications sought by reality television audiences is the reason why regular viewers watch the programmes because they find it entertaining, for the enjoyment of watching other peoples life, and the self-awareness they receive from these programmes. Cognitive and emotional predictors of reality television were examined by Nabi et al (2006) and found that happiness, para-social relationships, dramatic challenge social self-awareness, comparison and negative outcomes are factors which affect the enjoyment of reality television programmes. It was also found that reality television programmes did not appeal much to the audience when compared to other genres of television programming. However, this was attributed to the limited ability of the programmes to evoke positive emotions rather than the negative emotions which the programmes provoked. They also determined that perceived reality was not related to enjoyment from viewing reality television programming and that various dimensions of perceived reality were related, but not as a whole. Hall (2006) conducted focus groups to understand why participants enjoy watching reality television programming. It was found that participants enjoyed reality programmes most because of their humour and suspense as well as the fulfilment of social functions which participants get from watching the programmes. The participants noted that they have watched reality programmes with friends, and also discussed about the reality programmes they watched with their friends too. The study revealed that the participants view of reality television programming as realistic was just weak as the criteria for judging (realness) were different from show to show and changed as new programmes were broadcast. This therefore, makes perceived reality to be a difficult concept to measure. Papacharissi and Mendelson (2007) examines the gratifications sought from reality television and their findings indicates that respondents reported watching reality television programmes mainly to pass the time or for e ntertainment purposes. They noted that the respondents who reported watching for entertainment reasons were most likely to perceive the programmes as being real. Barton (2006) examined reality television programming and gratifications obtained by audience members. Findings from the study indicated that the content of the reality show influenced the gratifications obtained by the viewers. A new gratification known as personal utility which has not been studied was identified in the study. Personal utility was identified as one of the strongest predictors of overall gratifications obtained by reality television viewers. Personal utility refers to the viewer gaining something personally useful from the programme. It is therefore important to understand that viewers watch for different reasons. These reasons may lead to differing perceptions by viewers and thus differing effects. Therefore, individual difference variables have also been found to moderate why people watch reality television programmes (Barton 2006). Nabi et al (2003) while examining the gratifications received from reality television programming, discovered sex as a significant distinguishing factor. For instance, men were noted to be more entertained by reality programmes and as such, formed para-social relationships more often than women do. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) in their study examined how sex moderates the effects of reality television programming on their respondents and reported that they did not find sex as a significant influence on reality television outcomes. Rather, age was found to be a significant influence on reality television outcomes. Younger viewers reported becoming more self-aware and entertained from watching reality programmes, while older viewers reported engaging in social comparisons from viewing reality television. Race was also found to have an impact on media use outcomes. For instance, whites were found to identify with the characters, while non-whites were found to learn more information from reali ty television programming (Nabi et al, 2003). 2.1.2 Perceived Reality and Reality Television Programming Before the development of reality television programmes, perceived reality has been generating much interest among media researchers. Potters (1988) conceptual definition of perceived reality is a construct composed of three dimensions, with the first being defined as the belief in the literal reality of television messages (p.31). This component, known also as the magic window deals with how much the viewer believes that the mediated message from television reflects the outside world. Secondly, utility is defined as the practicality of the viewer applying what is viewed on television in his/her daily living. It also denotes the importance and extent to which people can relate the information they get from television into their own lives. Thirdly, identity refers to relating with a character or personality television programmes and this is also seen as the extent to which the viewer thinks a character plays a part in the viewers actual life (Potter, 1988). Magic window, utility, and identity are central to the understanding of a viewers perception of reality because each of these components will affect how a viewer perceives reality in a television programme. In examining perceived reality, Cavender and BondMaupin (1993) examined crime reality television programming, looking at programmes like Americas Most Wanted. This was done based on story selection, the techniques of cinematographic as well as the producers claims. Crime based reality television programmes were found to depict a very real sense of danger to the audience as they were found to be high in the identity component. Because of the images presented in crime reality programme programmes, it was easy for the viewers to identify with the characters that were presented as victims. Cavender and BondMaupin (1993) notes that participating in reality programmes means that the viewers are now part of the reality. This obviously makes it difficult to distinguish the reality in the programme from any other aspect of life. Their study suggests that reality programming has a unique form because of the presentation of realistic characters, settings, and plot. Another study which examined the perceived reality of reality television programmes is Meng and Lugalambi (2003). The study found that respondents did not view reality programmes as real. Perceived believability of the program mediated the relationship between the type of programme viewed and the perceived utility. The researchers argue that the best manner to examine perceived reality is by the degree of personal utility that the viewer receives from the reality programmes. 2.1.3 Defining reality television programming Reality television programmes are gradually becoming the toast of television stations and networks in recent times (Hall, 2006 and Stern, 2007). Since the success of the genres first big network hit, the Survivor (CBS), the number of reality programmes on television has multiplied, both on broadcast and cable networks. To Seibel and Kerschbaumer, (2004), Reality television programmes were first recognized as an official genre of television in 2004 even though it has become immensely popular in the years prior. Reality programmes or, as they are alternatively known, unscripted dramas have been somewhat difficult to define, due to the rapid growth which has caused the genre to expand into various forms (Hall, 2006; Nabi et al., 2003). While they are all considerably different, programmes like the Big Brother Show, Biggest Looser, The Apprentice, Gulder Ultimate Search, Survivor, Fear Factor, etc. have all been considered to be reality programmes, although each is structured in a slightly different form. There must be caution in describing reality television as simply programming that represents reality because this would force the inclusion of news programmes and talk programmes, which, are generally not considered as part of the genre. Nabi et al (2003, p. 304) while attempting to situate the precincts of reality television programming described them as programmes that film real people as they live out events (contrived or otherwise) in their lives, as these events occur. This description b ecomes Important as it assumes that the events on the television screen are chronological, and that the participants are not working from a script, the show is filmed in a non-studio environment and that the purpose of the programme must be entertainment. While it leaves room for a wide range of programming, this definition excludes talk programmes which, in some ways, draw upon some of the same appeals and strategies to attract viewers, and have been considered as forerunners of reality television (Reality Television, 2004). However, Hall, (2004) notes that the popular press has considered programmes, such as American Idol and Shocking Behaviour Caught on Tape, to be reality fare, even though they do not meet these criteria. Deery (2004) notes that reality television does not necessarily have to be realistic, nor does it have to depict common or everyday experiences. Deery further notes that the reality of reality television programmes is usually translated as the experience of rea l or ordinary people (i.e., unknown non-actors) in an actual and unscripted environment. It does not require that the situation must be ordinary, but that there should be a particular kind of viewer access. The definition of reality television to audiences seems to be as inconsistent as it is in academia, though slightly more inclusive. In a study of the public perception of reality programmes, Hall (2006) notes that some programmes such as Real World and Cops were unanimously considered by most respondents to be of the reality genre. Most of the respondents in the study believe that the presence of non-actors behaving independently from any sort of script was a mandatory criterion for reality television. Additionally, for some, a competition element helped define a show in the reality category. Hall noted that this was not necessarily a criterion because the competition was realistic, but rather that it seemed to be a central element for a large number of programmes that have been labelled as reality. The most defining characteristic for these research participants was the realism factor. Perhaps the most central element in determining the strength of a particular programmes membership in the programming category, however, was the nature of the show when compared to real life situations. Hall (2006, p. 198) notes that the understanding that the programme was non-scripted, which carries the implication that the behaviour of the cast members is self-determined and a true expression of their own personalities and wills, was repeatedly implied to be a determining factor of whether a show should be considered a reality programme. It seems, however, that a viewers task of determining whether or not the content of a programme is real may not be a simple task. Stern (2007) points out that the reality element of reality television is, at best, only a claim. The desire of producers to create an entertaining programme often leads them to distort events to make them more dramatic. The result is a programme that dances on the line between truth and fiction, often leaving the viewers confused about what is real and what is not. Stern notes further that manipulation of reality can manifest as producers interference with the cast, in addition to creative editing techniques. 2.2 Features of reality television (Characteristics) Within the confines of reality television programming exists two sub-genres: voyeur-based programmes and competition-based programmes with the emphasis within each being on the different dramatic aspects of the reality being captured. The first sub-genre, voyeur-based programmes, can most closely be compared to a documentary-style production. Programmes in this category are sometimes referred to as docu-dramas or docu-soaps (Jones, 2003). The component of producer involvement which is generally lacking in documentaries is accentuated in the voyeur-based programmes. However, this is a major area of differences between voyeur-based programming and actual documentaries. That is to say, voyeur-based reality programmes highlight the fact that the participants are incorporating the production units into their daily routines. The second sub-genre of reality-based television is competition-based programmes. These programmes tend to bear a resemblance with traditional game shows, with the distinguishing factor being that game shows typically do not offer comprehensive surveillance of the contestants. The competition-based programmes focus on how human interaction is affected when contestants are forced to interact with each other while trying to succeed against each other in various events. The following are the qualities that make a programme reality based. Reality-based programming is not scripted The most fundamental criterion for a television show to fall within the reality genre is that is must not have a script for the participants or contestants. This means that their actions and spoken words must be spontaneous. In its place, reality-based programming relies on established rules that govern the way the contestants interact with each other and their environment. These rules in essence act as a substitute for scripted materials in that they provide the contestants with a framework that dictates how their exchanges will be enacted. The idea behind this is that it offers an alternative to the predictability of fictional programming (Andrejevic, 2003). Reality-based programming involves ordinary people instead of actors It is argued that one thing that makes reality programming appealing is that it draws its contestants directly from the audience. Dovey (2000, p. 86) notes that ordinary people and their dramatic experiences are the staple of Reality television Syvertsen (2001 p. 319) describes ordinary people as, those people who are not known in the media, they are not experts, celebrities or newsworthy for any other reason people who are, in principle, interchangeable with one another. Andrejevic (2003, p.4).) notes that part of what makes reality-based programming appealing is its lottery-like ability to make a star out of nobodys'(sic) Reality-based programming is characterised by spontaneous actions The freedom for contestants to act on instinct or to adapt as they deem fit to any situation is a key element in what makes reality programming entertaining and unique. In most ways, the contestants are in control of the programme. There are rules governing the conduct of the contestants and operating within those set rules is an attribute possessed by reality programming alone. Andrejevic, (2003, p. 103) quoting The Real World and Road Rules producer, Jon Murray, said that we dont have a lot of control during the production process, what we have is the control to make choices during editing. The naturalness and ingenuity displayed by the contestants is what makes reality-based programmes unique from other forms of unscripted programming such as traditional game shows. Ultimately, with reality programming, viewers get what really happens first hand since there are no re-takes or re-shoots as only that which is natural and uncontrived will be captured and ultimately aired. When looked at in terms of the benefits of spontaneity compared to traditional scripted programming, Andrejevic makes the case that the free-will of the contestants can prove to be one of the most powerful tools reality television possesses. Andrejevic, (2003) concludes that in reality programming, content becomes detached from the normal concept of scriptwriters and directors, which is now replaced by the spontaneous rhythms of real conflict and real romance. Some element of producer involvement exists in Reality-based programming Reality-based programming can be seen as a contrived reality where the producers create the reality in which the contestants live in. This could mean the establishment of rules for how they will get food as on Gulder Ultimate Search, Survivor and Big Brother, or requiring that they regularly update the audience through confessionals or video diary entries as on Big Brother, Gulder Ultimate Search, and The Real World Show. This is one of the key distinctions that have been made between reality-based programming and documentaries. Dovey (2000) clearly notes that interviewing participants, involving directors, producers, or cameramen in the production or in any way interacting with the subject of a documentary is considered interference and is a serious taboo in documentary filmmaking. These techniques, however, have all been used extensively in reality-based programming. There is a comprehensive surveillance of subjects in Reality-based programmes The primary component that distinguishes reality-based programmes from similar forms of entertainment including traditional game shows and programmes is that it provides the viewer with a perspective of how the participants are feeling and behaving outside the confines of a limited event. For example, viewers are not given the opportunity to see how contestants interact with each other after the final round has been played. This is exactly what separates reality-based programming from traditional game shows (Andrejevic 2003). According to Andrejevic (2003, p. 102), the difference between reality-based programming and traditional game shows lies in the fact that they (reality television programmes) are based not on the documentation of exceptional moments but on the surveillance of the rhythm of day-to-day life. This last criterion shows programmes such as The Debators, Maltina Family Dance All, and NBCs Fear Factor cannot be considered as reality-based programmes. This is because, the producers of these programmes shows film exceptional moments and do not offer comprehensive surveillance of the contestants behaviours and interactions with others. 2.3 Reality television programmes and young audience Reality programmes has generally been thought to appeal to a lower-income demographic (Nabi et al., 2003). The reality genre in general has been criticized as being exploitive of some of the worst characteristics, behaviours and ranks of the human race, and was long considered by the television industry to be low-brow entertainment (Freeman, 2001). Even as reality television programmes began to be accepted by the networks, advertisers were still sceptical about investing in them, primarily discouraged by audience demographic and possibly questionable materials in the programmes. Supporting Freemans view, Atkinson and Fine (2004, p. 1) averred that Advertisers once didnt like the thought of associating with what they regarded as often sleazy down-market fare A study in 2001 confirmed advertisers suspicions when it found that 58% of regular reality audiences were in the middle to low income bracket, with annual incomes falling below $50,000 (Gardyn, 2001, p. 1). Carter (2003) notes that reality television appeals to a younger group of viewers between the age ranges of 18 49 years, or even narrower, between 18 30 years. This demographic profiles of the audience he notes, represents a coveted demographic for advertisers. 2.3.1 The appeal in reality television The appeal of reality television ranges from mere voyeurism to a hope that it offers insights into the human condition. Nabi et al. (2003) found that the initial draw for casual viewers is generally related to boredom, while regular viewers of reality television tune in to be entertained. Some of the appeal may be the lure of watching real people on television. A study in 2001 revealed that 37% of the Americans polled preferred to watch real people on television, as opposed to scripted actors (Gardyn, 2001). However, Nabi, Finnerty, Halford and Stitt (2006) suggests that some of the appeal of reality television may not reside in the quality of the reality, but rather in the drama and suspense, elements of good storytelling, that are often found in reality programmes. Voyeurism has also been cited as a gratification of watching reality television (Hall, 2004). Although Nabi et al. (2003) questions whether or not voyeurism is an appropriate term to describe audiences motivations for viewing because cast members are aware that they are being watched and network constraints assure that explicit material does not make it on the air. Rather than the desire to view forbidden or immoral contents, the audience simply sit and enjoy watching other peoples lives and interpersonal relationships. There is also the notion that reality television fulfils the ever growing American obsession with celebrity and stardom. Conlin, (2003, p. 1) avers that by making perceived nobodies into overnight superstars, reality programme seem to appeal highly to a set of American audience who are obsessed with stardom and those who crave for something different from Hollywoods celebrity system. Andrejevic (2005) also notes that part of the appeal of reality programming is the viewers sense of access, or the thinking that the participants in the programmes could just be them. On a more basic level, reality programmes require minimum commitment from its audience. 2.4 Criticisms of reality television programmes The actual realism of reality television (or lack thereof) and its presentation as real has been a subject of criticism. Nabi et al. (2003) found that while viewers perceived the casts of reality programmes to be real, they did not however see events in the programmes to be sufficiently real. Bagley (2001) says that much of what may be marketed to the public as real may actually be a creatively manipulated or faked reality brought about by the process of production and editing. In his criticism of the Real World, Bagley discusses the potentially misleading production practices that attempt to give reality programmes the appearance of being real by borrowing from the documentary style. Real World, one of the first and most taunted prime examples of the reality programming, hold its authenticity to both its means of presentation and by direct statements. Every reality programme begins with the same claim of being original and authentic. In fact, Bagley (2001, p. 62) notes that this is a true story of seven people, picked to work together, have their lives taped and find out what happens when people stop being polite and start getting real Deery (2004) describes the reality genre as postdocumentary. This implies that the genre has been transformed from its parent genre, documentary, but still retains some of its original elements, which are mainly in the form of its production. This semblance to documentary production is what Bagley (2001) refers to as deceivi ng. Real Worlds manner of presentation critically determines its acceptance as faithful documentation of material existenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with aspirations perfectly coinciding with other forms of nonfiction productionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Being patterned after the television journalistic style, Real World borrows on the confidence that genre provokes in its audience, and manages in the process to evoke its own mystique of authenticity that, in the final analysis, furnishes viewers with the rationale to successfully negotiate the shows authorial ambiguity (Bagley, 2004, p. 61-62). Other scholars (Murray, 2006; Bagley, 2001) have argued that the Shaky, camera being moved about, the normal day light, natural environmental sounds, the cheap production values, the surveillance as well as the interview sections by way of confessions help to further boost the claim that Real World reality programme actually depict reality. Some or all of these presentation tactics can be seen in various other reality television programmes such as Big Brother (CBS) and The Bachelor (ABC). At best, reality television, according to Bagley (2004) is a mixture of fiction and non-fiction. Bagley (ibid) notes specifically that most people, when placed before a camera, perform in one way or another, rather than behaving as they would in their natural settings. Again, the long period of editing which is required to reduce long hours of daily footage down into a 30 minute storyline is done with little objectivity in the mind of the produce. The production process is not influenced by the desire to accurately present situations as they are in their traditional forms of non-fiction media, but rather by a desire to entertain and sell. Bagley (2001) notes that this fact alone discredits the genre as a subjective representation of reality because its purpose goes beyond capturing unmediated human relations and events but has veered i nto the commercial realm. 2.4.1 Third person-perception Other criticisms of reality television have emerged indirectly from studies of third-person perception, and have indicated that reality programmes may be socially undesirable in the minds of audience members. Materials that are not socially desirable have been the focus of some studies conducted on third-person perception (Paul, Salwen, and Dupagne, 2000). As noted by Bissell, Peek, and Leone (2006), numerous studies have supported the idea that people perceive others to be more affected by media messages than themselves, particularly the negative contents. The phenomenon of negative contents has been shown in studies of political campaign messages, political advertising, commercials, rap music, and public service announcements, among other types of media (Bissell et al., 2006). In their 2006 study, Bissell, Peek, and Leone (2006),in a study which examined the perceptions of 640 college students concerning reality television (Real World, Fear Factor and Joe Millionaire) found that the students believed that reality programmes negatively impacted others more than themselves, which the researchers suggested indicated their perceptions of reality television as socially undesirable. 2.4.2 Drama Although it has not been extensively documented, the content of reality television tends to be hyper-dramatized turning seeming unimportant events into crises. This is not surprising, given that its purpose is to entertain audiences. Real World producers carefully select cast members to produc